“American While Black” by Niambi Michele Carter

"For most of their existence in the United States, black people were noncitizens. Regardless of status, whether free or enslaved, blacks were not deemed members of the American body politic. In fact, they were not inaugurated as full citizens until 1965. Their noncitizen status was cemented in the Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) Supreme Court decision, which stated all people of African descent— whether free or enslaved— could not become citizens." --American While Black, p. 87.

This book appears on several lists inspired by the recent protests against police brutality against Black Americans. American While Black: African Americans, Immigration, and the Limits of Citizenship by Niambi Michele Carter (published 2019) seems to me to be full of wonderful insights. I was very interested in the author's approach to understanding Black Americans on their own terms, not by comparison to other groups.

American While Black explores the current attitudes of American Blacks about immigration and how these attitudes came about. The immigration issue is of little political importance in their voting behavior, in contrast to the attitudes of many white groups. Carter discusses how Black Americans' historically developed sense of identity informs the way they view other minorities, particularly immigrants. The discussion is detailed and nuanced, and I don't intend to try to reproduce it, just to acknowledge that it's very interesting and, as promised on the book lists, offered me a lot of new insights.

Carter provides some definitions of commonly used terms that I find quite penetrating:

"White supremacy is the system that favors white people and structures all of our life chances according to skin color, gender expression, sexuality, nationality, religion, and the like. This means all of us can participate in perpetuating the system of white supremacy regardless of whether that system benefits us individually or whether we participate in or believe in racist practice." (pp. 4-5).

"Under colorblindness, racism only exists in the minds of those who see themselves as victims, not as an objective fact. Consequently, what appears to be the result of race— poverty, infant mortality, and high rates of incarceration— is explained in nonracial terms by the (unwise) choices individuals make." (p. 42).

I was especially interested in this point about how Black people view their history:

"It is difficult not to understand how black life is bounded by and to past circumstances, because they are not past events but frame the racial dynamics blacks find themselves living in at present. This is not because blacks are backward-looking victims; rather, this is a demonstration of the power of communal or collective memory and the vigilance required so that we do not return to that place." (p. 140). 

Beginning in the 19th century, Black Americans did not have the rights of citizenship nor the ability to enjoy the product of their labor as slaves. As a result, they could view themselves as stateless people. Continuing through much of the 19th and 20th centuries, there were a variety of efforts and suggestions to enable American Blacks to "return" to Africa, often with the enthusiastic commitment of Black leaders, as well as with less-well-intentioned white leaders. Carter writes in the context of this suggested emigration:

"Individual agency matters, because that is at the heart of who can be a citizen. In the United States, where citizenship is not defined by culture but an allegiance to certain ideals like life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness, being a sovereign person means that one is 'fit' for citizenship. In this way, the purest expression of being an American is being able/ free to find a place in the world, literally, and contribute to its advancement. This freedom was denied to all blacks who, during the period under study, had no status as Americans, even if free." (p. 85). 

Combined with the post-Civil-War mistreatment of the freed slaves, the suggestion that Blacks should return to Africa in a way haunts their political consciousness. At the same time, the waves of immigrants, first from Europe and more recently from Latin America and Asia have repeatedly been offered better opportunities for entrepreneurship, for education, and for integration into the white middle and even upper classes. Carter explores how Blacks have responded over time to these new citizens and their enjoyment of opportunities that were consistently denied to the Black population.

Clearly, the book shows, Black people understand that immigrants are their competitors and often willingly participate in perpetuating the unequal status of Black people, yet the author's studies and surveys (described in detail in the final chapters of the book) find that immigration and immigrants are not of crucial importance in the worldview or political view of Black Americans. In some cases, they see immigrant groups as unwitting victims of the same prejudices and abuses that Blacks have suffered. She writes:

I identify several ways that blacks talk about immigration: how race impedes blacks’ abilities to be viewed as full citizens; disappointments over America’s failure to live up to its promise regarding blacks; and the perceived failure of immigrants to understand fully the nature of white supremacy." (p. 134).  

This is a very worthwhile book! I don't feel as if I am doing it justice, as it's full of really interesting insights and details about how immigrant groups have often been absorbed into the white mainstream while adopting white attitudes and prejudices, thus reinforcing the unequal status of Black people. I find this book even more interesting in light of other books I've read recently, especially Carol Anderson's White Rage (blogged here).

This image from a news report of a local Ann Arbor
protest march yesterday seems to me to be relevant
to this review. (source)

Review text copyright © 2020 by mae sander for maefood dot blog spot dot com.